|
|
<<< ΛΛΛ >>>
110. Ackroyd, P. Milton in America / P. Ackroyd. - London: Vintage, 1997. - 277 p.
111. Ackroyd, P. The Life of Thomas More / P. Ackroyd. - New York: Nan A. Talese, 1998. - 447 p.
112. Aldous Huxley, 1894-1963: A Memorial Volume / ed. J. Huxley. - London: Chatto & Windus, 1965. -175 p.
113. Aldridge, A. O. Polygamy in Early Fiction: Henry Neville and Denis Veiras / A. O. Aldridge // PMLA. - 1950. - Vol.65, No. 4. -P. 464-472.
114. An Encyclopaedia of Pacifism / ed. A. Huxley; introd. M. Birnbaum. - New York-London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1972. - 126 p.
115. Atkins, J. Aldous Huxley: A Literary Study / J. Atkins. - London: Calder & Boyars, 1967. - XXXVII, 218 p.
116. Bedford, S. Aldous Huxley: A Biography / S. Bedford. - New York: Alfred A. Knopf; Harper and Row, 1974. - 769 p.
117. Bellamy, E. Looking Backward: 2000-1887 / E. Bellamy; introd. W. J. Miller. - New York: Signet Classic, 2000. - XIII, 222 p.
118. Berneri, M. L. Journey through Utopia / M. L. Berneri. - London: Routledge and Paul, 1950. - 339 p.
119. Biesterfeld, W. Die literarische Utopie / W. Biesterfeld. - Stuttgart: Metzler, 1982. -125 S.
120. Blaim, A. Utopias in History, History in Utopias / A. Blaim // Annales universitatis Mariae-Curie-Sklodowska: Sectio FF, Philologiae. -Lublin, 1990. - Vol. 8. - P. 85-97.
121. Bloch, R.N. Bibliographie der Utopie und Phantastik, 1650-1950: Im deutschen Sprachraum / R. N. Bloch. - Hamburg: Achilla Presse, 2002. - 340 S.
122. Bradbury, R. There Will Come Soft Rains / R. Bradbury // Utopian Literature: A Selection / ed. J. W. Johnson. - New York: The Modern Library, 1968. - P. 297-303.
123. Brander, L. Aldous Huxley: A Critical Study / L. Brander. -London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1969. - 244 p.
124. Burgess, A. English Literature / A. Burgess. - Harlow: Longman, 2000. - 278 p.
125. Butler, S. Erewhon. Erewhon Revisited / S. Butler; introd. D. MacCarthy. - London: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1942. - XII, 389 p.
126. Butler, S. Essays on Life, Art and Science / S. Butler; ed. R. A. Streatfield. - London: A.C. Fifield, 1908. - 340 p.
127. Butler, S. Life and Habit / S. Butler. - London: Trubner and Co., Ludgate Hill, 1878. - 307 p.
128. Butler, S. Unconscious Memory / S. Butler; note R. A. Streatfeild; introd. M. Hartog. - London: A. C. Fifield, 13 Clifford's Inn, E.C., 1910. - XXXVII, 186 p.
129. Cannan, G. Samuel Butler: A Critical Study / G. Cannan. -London: Martin Secker, 1915. - 194 p.
130. Chakoo, B. L. Aldous Huxley and Eastern Wisdom / B. L. Chakoo. - Delhi: Atma Ram & Sons, 1981. - 308 p.
131. Cockshott, G. Music and Nature: A Study of Aldous Huxley / G. Cockshott // Studies in Aldous Huxley. Vol. 2. - Salzburg: Institut fur Anglistik und Amerikanistik Universitat Salzburg, 1980. - 401 p.
132. Defoe, D. The Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe / D. Defoe. - Doylestown: Wildside Press, n.d. - 221 p.
133. Defoe, D. The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe Written by Himself / D. Defoe. - Chatham: Wordsworth Classics, 2000. - 242 p.
134. Diakonova, N. Time and Space in the Works of Aldous Huxley / N. Diakonova // RuBriCa: The Russian and British Cathedra. - Москва-Kajryra, 1996. - Вып. 1. - С. 57-72.
135. Dictionary of Literary Utopias / ed. V. Fortunati and R. Trousson. - Paris: Honore Champion Editeur, 2000. - 732 p.
136. Earle, P. The World of Defoe / P. Earle. - Newton Abbot: Readers Union Group of Book Clubs, 1977. - 353 p.
137. Ehrismann, D. The Ambidextrous Defoe: A Study of his Journalism and Fiction / D. Ehrismann. - Zurich: Private Publication, 1991. -116 p.
138. Elliott, R. C. The Shape of Utopia: Studies in a Literary Genre / R. C. Elliott. - Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1970. -158 p.
139. Frye, N. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays / N. Frye. - New York: Atheneum, 1969. - 384 p.
140. Furbank, P. N. Samuel Butler (1835-1902) / P. N. Furbank. -Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948. -113 p.
141. Gardner, M. Looking Backward at Edward Bellamy's Utopia / M. Gardner // New Criterion. - 2000. - Vol. 19, No. 1. - P. 19-25.
142. Gerber, R. Utopian Fantasy: A Study of English Utopian Fiction since the End of the 19th Century / R. Gerber. - New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973. -168 p.
143. Grunwald, H. Can the Millennium Deliver? / H. Grunwald // Time. -1998. - Vol. 151, No. 18. - P. 84-87.
144. Hardesty, W. H. Mapping the Future: Extrapolation in Utopian/Dystopian and Science Fiction / W. H. Hardesty // Utopian Studies 1 / ed. G. Beauchamp, etc.; prologue A. O. Lewis. - Lanham: University Press of America, 1987. - P. 160-172.
145. Harkness, S. B. The Career of Samuel Butler (1835-1902). A Bibliography / S. B. Harkness. - London: The Bodley Head, 1955. -154 p.
146. Heiserman, A.R. Satire in the Utopia / A.R. Heiserman // PMLA. -1963. - Vol. 78, No. 3. - P. 163-174.
147. Hesse, H. Das Glasperlenspiel / H. Hesse // Hesse, H. Die Romane und die gro?en Erzahlungen / H. Hesse. - Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1980. - B. 7-8. - 609 S.
148. Holmes, C. M. Aldous Huxley and the Way to Reality / C. M. Holmes. - Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1970. - 238 p.
149. Holt, L E. Samuel Butler / L. E. Holt. - New York: Twayne Publishers, 1964. -183 p.
150. Howard, D. F. Samuel Butler / D. F. Howard // Victorian Fiction: A Second Guide to Research / ed. G. H. Ford. - New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 1978. - P. 288-307.
151. Hutchinson, S. Mapping Utopias / S.Hutchinson // Modern Philology: A Journal Devoted to Research in Medieval and Modern Literature. - Chicago, 1987. - Vol. 85, No. 2. - P. 170-185.
152. Huxley, A. Brave New World. Brave New World Revisited / A. Huxley. - London: Heron Books, 1968. - 390 p.
153. Huxley, A. Collected Essays / A. Huxley. - New York: Bantam Books, 1960. - 400 p.
154. Huxley, A. Island / A. Huxley. - London: Flamingo, 1994. -
330 p.
155. Huxley, L. A. This Timeless Moment: A Personal View of Aldous Huxley / L. A. Huxley. - New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1968. - 331 p.
156. Jacoby, R. A Brave Old World: Looking Forward to a Nineteenth-Century Utopia / R. Jacoby // Harper's Magazine. - 2000. - Vol. 301, No. 1807. - P. 72-77.
157. Kateb, G. Utopia and Its Enemies: Studies in the Libertarian and Utopian Tradition / G. Kateb. - New York: Schocken Books, 1972. - 244 p.
158. Kautsky, K. Thomas More and his Utopia / K. Kautsky. - London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1979. - 253 p.
159. Kiser, E. Changes in the Core of the World-System and the Production of Utopian Literature in Great Britain and the United States / E. Kiser, K. A. Drass // American Sociological Review. - 1987. - Vol. 52, No. 2. - P. 286-293.
160. Kleszcz, L. Filozofia i Utopia: Platon, Biblia, Nietzsche / L. Kleszcz. - Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego, 1997. - 164 s.
161. Krishnan, B. Aspects of Structure, Technique and Quest in Aldous Huxley's Major Novels / B. Krishnan // Acta universitatis upsaliensis. Studia anglistica upsaliensia. - Uppsala, 1977. - Vol. 33. - 180 p.
162. Kumar, K. Aspects of the Western Utopian Tradition / K. Kumar // History of the Human Sciences. - London, 2003. - Vol. 16, No. 1. - P. 63-77.
163. Kumar, K. Utopia and Anti-Utopia in Modern Times / K. Kumar. - Padstow: Basil Blackwell, 1987. - 506 p.
164. Lasky, M. J. Utopia and Revolution: On the Origins of a Metaphor or Some Illustrations of the Problem of Political Temperament and Intellectual Climate and How Ideas, Ideals and Ideologies Have Been Historically Related / M. J. Lasky. - Chicago-London: The University of Chicago Press, 1976. - 726 p.
165. Letters of Aldous Huxley / ed. G. Smith. - New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1969. - 992 p.
166. Levitas, R. The Concept of Utopia / R. Levitas. - New York: Philip Allan, 1990. - 224 p.
167. Logan, G. M. The Meaning of More's Utopia / G. M. Logan. -Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983. - 296 p.
168. Mannheim, K. Ideology and Utopia: An Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge / K. Mannheim; preface L. Wirth. - London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1966. - 318 p.
169. Marcuse, H. The End of Utopia / H. Marcuse // Marcuse, H. Five Lectures: Psychoanalysis, Politics, and Utopia / H. Marcuse; transl. from the German by J. J. Shapiro, S. M. Weber. - Boston: Beacon Press, 1970. - P. 62-82.
170. Meckier, J. Aldous Huxley. Satire and Structure / J. Meckier. -London: Chatto & Windus, 1969. - 223 p.
171. Miething, C. Politeia und Utopia: Zur Epistemologie der literarischen Utopie / C. Miething // Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift. -Heidelberg, 1987. - Bd. 37, H. 3. - S. 247-263.
172. Morgan, A. E. Nowhere was Somewhere. How History Makes Utopias and How Utopias Make History / A. E. Morgan. - Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1946. - 234 p.
173. Mullenbrock, H.-J. Krieg in Morus' Utopia / H.-J. Mullenbrock // Anglia: Zeitschrift fur Englische Philologie. - Tubingen, 2002. - Bd. 120, H.1.-S. 1-29.
174. Mumford, L. The Story of Utopias / L. Mumford. - New York: The Viking Press, 1972. - 315 p.
175. Neville, H. The Isle of Pines / H. Neville // Utopian Studies: The Journal of the Society for Utopian Studies. - Anchorage, 2006. - Vol. 17, No. 1. - P. 25-51.
176. Parniewski, W. Utopia i antyutopia (geneza, zrodla, intencje) / W. Parniewski // Acta universitatis lodziensis. Folia litteraria. - Lodz, 1989. - No. 25. Studia z literatury rosyjskiej i radzieckiej. - S. 91-105.
177. Parrinder, P. Nation and Novel: The English Novel from Its Origins to the Present Day. - Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. - 502 p.
178. Parrish, J. M. A New Source for More's Utopia / J. M. Parrish //The Historical Journal. -1997. - Vol. 40, No. 2. - P. 493-498.
179. Rose, S. The Fear of Utopia / S. Rose // Essays in Criticism: A Quarterly Journal of Literary Criticism. - Oxford, 1974. - Vol. 24, No. 1. -P. 55-70.
180. Sanderlin, G. The Meaning of Thomas More's Utopia / G. Sanderlin // College English. -1950. - Vol. 12, No. 2. - P. 74-77.
181. Sargent, L. T. British and American Utopian Literature, 1516-1975: An Annotated Bibliography / L. T. Sargent. - Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1979.-324 p.
182. Shephard, R. Utopia, Utopia's Neighbours, Utopia, and Europe / R. Shephard // Sixteenth Century Journal. - 1995. - Vol. 26, No. 4. -P. 843-856.
183. Simon, L. Looking Backward: A Profile of Edward Bellamy / L. Simon // World & I. -1999. - Vol. 14, No. 6. - P. 289-293.
184. Starnes, C. The New Republic. A Commentary on Book I of More's Utopia, Showing Its Relation to Plato's Republic / C. Starnes. - Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1990. -122 p.
185. Stewart, D. The Ark of God: Studies in Five Modern Novelists (James Joyce, Aldous Huxley, Graham Greene, Rose Macaulay, Joyce Cary) / D. Stewart. - London: The Carey Kingsgate Press Ltd., 1961. -158 p.
186. Swift, J. Gulliver's Travels / J. Swift. - Reading: Penguin Books, 1994.-329 p.
187. The Complete Oxford Shakespeare / gen. ed. S. Wells and G. Taylor. - London: Guild Publishing, 1987. -1432 p.
188. Thody, P. Aldous Huxley: A Biographical Introduction / P. Thody. - London: Studio Vista, 1973. -144 p.
189. Three Early Modern Utopias: Utopia, New Atlantis, The Isle of Pines / ed. S. Bruce [More, T. Utopia / Th. More; transl. from the Latin by R. Robinson. Bacon, F. New Atlantis / F. Bacon. Neville, H. The Isle of Pines / H. Neville]. - Oxford: Oxford World's Classics, 1999. - 250 p.
190. Trodd, A. A Reader's Guide to Edwardian Literature / A. Trodd. - Alberta: University of Calgary Press, 1991. -144 p.
191. Utopias and Utopian Thought / ed. F. E. Manuel. - London: Souvenir Press, 1973. - 321 p.
192. Wells, H. G. A Modern Utopia / H. G. Wells. - Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967. - 393 p.
193. Wickes, G. Aldous Huxley / G. Wickes, R. Frazer // Writers at Work. The Paris Review Interviews / introd. V. W. Brooks. - New York: The Viking Press, 1963. - P. 193-214.
194. Wilde, 0. The Soul of Man under Socialism / O. Wilde // Collected Works of Oscar Wilde. - Chatham: Wordsworth Editions, 1997. -P. 1039-1066.
195. Wilding, M. Social Visions / M. Wilding. - Sydney: Sydney Studies, 1993. - 186 p.
196. Zgorzelski, A. Fantastyka. Utopia. Science fiction: Ze studiow nad rozwojem gatunkow / A. Zgorzelski. - Warszawa: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1980. - 204 s.
Августин Блаженный Аврелий (Sanctus Aurelius Augustinus) 126
Адамович А. М. 82
Андреа (Andreae) И. В. 14,45,46
Аристотель (Aristoteles) 84
Байрон (Byron) Дж. Г. Н. 57
Баллард (Ballard) Дж. 81
Батлер (Butler) С. 13,17,21,22,59-78,141
Беллами (Bellamy) Э. 70-78
Берджесс (Burgess) Э. 44,82
Бержерак (Berjerac) С. де 14
Бертон (Burton) Р. 46
Блейк (Blake) У. 137
Брэдбери (Bradbury) Р. 84-88
Быков (Быкау) В. 58
Бэкон (Bacon) Ф. 12,14,17, 20,22,36,37-47,63, 85,86 Верас (Veiras) Д. 14,44,46
Войнович В. Н. 82
Вордсворт (Wordsworth) у. 139,146
Гаррингтон (Harrington) Дж. 12,13,44 Гауптман (Hauptmann) Г. 57,82-84 Гегель (Hegel) Г. В. Ф. 13 Гессе (Hesse) Г. 46, 96-98 Гете (Goethe) И. В. 47 Гоббс (Hobbes) Т. 37,48,49 Голдинг (Golding) у. 57,81
Гриммельсгаузен (Grimmelshausen) Г. Я. К. 49-50
Данте (Dante) А. 147 Дарвин (Darwin) Ч. 60, 71, 75
Дефо (Defoe) Д. 13,17,20-21,22,44,48-58, 61,83,85 Джойс (Joyce) Дж. 20 Джонсон (Jonson) Б. 37 Диккенс (Dickens) Ч. 145
Замятин Е. И. 80
Каммингс (Cummings) Э. Э. 95
Кампанелла (Campanella) Т. 14,33,35-36,44,45,46
Кампе (Kampe) И. Г. 57
Китс (Keats) Дж. 146
Клопшток (Klopstock) Ф. Г. 46
Колет (Colet) Дж. 30
Кутзее (Coetzee) Дж. 57
Ластовский (Ластоускi) В. 47 Локк (Locke) Дж. 48,53-54,57 Лоуренс (Lawrence) Д. Г. 135 Лукиан (Lucian) 28
Мавр (Маур) Янка 57 Макиавелли (Machiavelli) H. 34 Мандевилль (Mandeville) Б. 48 Мерль (Merle) Р. 82 Милтон (Milton) Дж. 147 Монтень (Montaigne) M. Э. де 27
Мор (More) Т. 8,12,14,17,19,22,24-36,40,41,43,46,55,59,62,76,85,92,93 Моррис (Morris) У. 13, 76,77
Невилл (Neville) Г. 13,14,44,49-50
Оруэлл (Orwell) Джордж 44,81-82
Петрушевская Л. С. 81
Платон (Plato) 9,15,18,29,33, 38,39,41,45,70,76,84,90,92 Платонов А. 81 Пэлток (Paltock) Р. 57
Разин А. Е. 57 Рэли (Raleigh) у. 51
Свифт (Swift) Дж. 14,50, Стил (Steele) Р. 51
51,56
Толстая Т.Н. 82 Толстой Л. Н. 145
Topo (Thoreau) Г. 57 Турбин С. И. 57 Турнье (Tournier) M. 57
Уайльд (Wilde) О. 26 Уитмен (Whitman) у. 95 Уэллс (Wells) Г. 15,47
Филдинг (Fielding) Г. 21 Франс (France) А. 81 Фрейн (Frayn) M. 81 Фромм (Fromm) Э. 84
Хаксли (Huxley) О. 13,14,17,18, 22,80,89, 90-109 Хан (Khan) X. И. 102,104,108 Херси (Hersey) Дж. 82
Цицерон (Cicero) 31
Чернышевский Н. Г. 77 Чосер (Chaucer) Дж. 136,142
Шекспир (Shakespeare) у. 46, 79,140-150 Шелли (Shelley) M. 47 Шефтсбери (Shaftsbury) Э. 48 Шимборска (Szymborska) В. 5 Шмидт (Schmidt) А. 46 Шнабель (Schnabel) И. Г. 57
Эко (Eco) у. 57,111
Экройд (Ackroyd) П. 24-25,111
Эмис (Amis) К. 82
Эпикур (Epicurus) 31,84
Эразм Роттердамский (Erasmus Desideratus) 24, 25,27, 28,30,33,34 Этвуд (Atwood) M. 82
Юм (Hume) Д. 48 Юнг (Jung) К. Г. 84
Ямбул (Iambulos) 38 Literary Utopias from More to Huxley: The Issues of Genre Poetics and Semiosphere. Finding an Island
The book is a genre-genetic and semiotic study of literary Utopias, elaborating on the texts from English, Italian, French, American, Russian, Belarusian and other national literatures, against their philosophical, sociocultural, and historical background. With its experimental verve, Utopian imagination tends to construct nowhere worlds on remote patches of the earth, moon, sun, etc., but more often on an island. The island belongs to archetypal loci of world literature and, in a broad sense, culture. The first heroes on record from Egyptian, Greek, Celtic, and Slavonic mythologies would aspire for a distant island, usually situated in the happy otherworld and cut off from outside contact. The discontinuation of the physical boundary, imparting wholeness to the island, equals the profanation of inner values, adopted on it. The semiotic space of literary Utopias (semiosphere) evidences a two-faceted experience of assimilating the world's structure (cosmic harmony and order) and repudiating the world's meaning (societal mores and governments). The means of expressing this experience (poetics) help to unveil an integral complex of mankind's permanent and momentary expectations in the current perspective, to register the loss of illusions in retrospect, and to prognosticate the potential allure and danger of hyperrational world-organization. Despite the predominantly linear didacticism of a Utopian work, being the downside of polyphony, its text still carries high tension between the real and imaginary planes. In this way, a literary Utopia invites the reader to partake in a dialogue concerning the «best» profiles of reality, to perceive the sense, unfolding on an island.
Chapter I discusses the basic sense-forming factors of literary Utopias: the sociocritical moment, proceeding from the negation of a certain historical situation, and the principle of hope, presupposing the anticipation of ideal politico-social conditions. Utopian thinking also feeds on the mythopoetic imagery of space and saving heroes. In total, these factors assemble a set of typological attributes of the genre, comprising topos, ethos, and telos. The topos, or the commonplace, of literary Utopias is an ideal land, isolated from the ambient environment. Among the possible variants of fictional space in literary Utopias, English literature shows a marked propensity for the insular topos. In the novels by T. More, F. Bacon, J. Harrington, H. Neville, D. Defoe, etc. there can tellingly be distinguished these authors'
154
intention to frame the ground of the fictional experiment into a concentric shape, separated from the rest of the world by water. The ethos, or common morality, is congruous with the religion and education, practised in the planned world. The ethological component of the Utopian genre provides for the moral and intellectual stability of an imagined society and serves -along with the topos - some greater cause. The telos, or common social politics, indicates the purpose-engagement of themes and ideas, expanded on in the Utopian text. The teleological component of literary Utopias does not lead only to manifesting the peculiarities of an ideal state, but also to articulating the image of steady perfection. For this reason, it plays a dominant role among the typological attributes of the genre, commanding the senses of the topo- and ethosphere. The multiple aspects of the Utopian order are explored by a travelling narrator, whose world-view is, to a large degree, coextensive with that of the author. The typical characteristics of the protagonists, dialoguing with representatives of the fictitious reality, are conditioned by the facture of the newly discovered countries that bear witness to the incessant movement of time. Hypothetical travels inside the labyrinths of Utopian perfection set off the inner nature of the individual human microcosm.
Chapter II investigates the Utopian tradition from More to Bellamy by bringing to light the binary opposition of happiness and freedom. The process of semiotizing fictional space in literary Utopias was initiated by Thomas More. The text of Utopia (1516) carried certain hallmarks and attributes, obviously unknown either to Plato or to More's other literary precursors. At one and the same time, the provisional reality of the novel officiated alienation from the surrounding world and implementation of humanistic ideals, propagated by the «Oxford reformers» (J. Colet, Erasmus, T. More). In the novel, the idea of the «second creation» took its imaginary shape on an artificial island. The uncertainty of Utopia's geographical position was emphasized by topographical similarity between this island and 16th-century England. The English coastline had the same length as that of Utopia; the number of cities, or shire towns, in both the lands was identical. The incomplete concentricity of Utopia, as well as its square-shaped capital, threw into relief the mastery of the human factor over natural forces, which had been admitted to the city only as a garden. The island, depicted in Utopia, was incompatible with the real world in its hand-made unreality to such an extent, to which it surpassed that real world in the symmetrical order of its forms. Happiness and freedom found their realization on the island in the light of Stoicism and Epicureanism, the proper combination of which prescribed sacrificing earthly pleasures to intellectual joys. The country's absolute law-giver and governor Utopus arranged physical and metaphysical (moral, social, political, legal) estrangement of the island so
155
that it could support the wholeness of the «best commonwealth». T. More artfully fixed a significant balance of poetics and semiosphere by structuring the novel along thematic lines and thus envisaging the genre matrix of literary Utopias that were written later.
The search for Atlantis - a mythic island, alluded to in Plato's dialogues, charged the imagination of Francis Bacon. His novel New Atlantis (1627) corresponded to the spirit of 17th-century panscientism. The flatness and enormity of Bensalem, taken in by the narrator, distinguish the island from Utopia in the sense that the former was eight times as large as the latter. In the such-like expansion of fictional space in English literary Utopias one may as well recognize a burgeoning phantom of the future empire, envisioned in the Utopian key. The concrete images that filled the insular topos in New Atlantis were products of knowledge, extant to «the enlarging the bounds of Human Empire» within definite geographical confines - on the island. The principal difference between More's and Bacon's politico-social programmes concerned the institute of slavery, irretrievably abolished in Bensalem. Any penal constraint was put into practice through property deprivation, leaving individual freedom intact. The New Atlantic state assumed overall responsibility for moral aspects of elite education, preparing its adepts for the accumulation of intellectual wealth and full-scale scientific discoveries. According to Bacon, the movement toward knowledge-power proved incredibly laborious, while the final goal loomed as a fair achievement. Being a representative of Renaissance culture, F. Bacon pictured man as an inseparable element of the natural universe. In order to read the book of nature, man was expected not only to learn to manipulate its symbols, but also to master rational methods of dwelling in its embrace. Such a strategy of searching for Atlantis won immediate acclaim and provoked long-term re-evaluation in the works by F. Klopstock, M. Shelley, H. Hesse, H. Wells, V. Lastouski, and others.
In the age of Enlightenment, the philosophy of which postulated absolute dominion of reason as a most reliable instrument in estimating and reorganizing the world, the broadening intellectual horizons stimulated the demand for genre structures, not trite in the earlier periods of literary history. The genealogy of the European Enlightenment novel rose to the diary and memoirs, the form of which readily refracted new sides of reality. The intense exploration of the American continent in the 17th - early 18th centuries produced a notable impact on the toposphere of literary Utopias. In Daniel Defoe's novels The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe and The Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1719), there may be discerned certain elements of Utopian world-modelling. The choice of the location at the mouth of the Guyana river Orinoco was not incidental because the author, similarly to many of his compatriots, felt attracted by Eldorado gold, the
156
probable existence of which was picturesquely related by the English explorer and poet Walter Raleigh in The Discovery of Guyana (1596), later reinterpreted by Defoe. Thus, in the insular topos the tendency toward expanding the living space of the Utopian experiment had finally formed. The Utopian space preserved its essentially closed character, confronting, as previously, the strange and open world outside. In the Utopian project of the Enlightenment, foremost importance was granted to the notions of equality, justice, and labour, ranking as unalienable rights in the imaginary world and bringing into the limelight harmony between nature and man-made universe. D. Defoe's novels solidly embodied their author's vision of the land, rationally transformed from the abode of Despair into the island of Hope. The narrative situation «man on an uninhabited island» generated a spate of imitations and reinterpretations, confirming its semantic and structural validity in world literature: J. Schnabel's The Isle of Felsenburg, H. Thoreau's Walden, S. Turbin's The Russian Robinson, Yanka Maur's Palessie Robinsons, W. Golding's Lord of the Flies, etc.
The semiosphere of literary Utopias tends to lever into high conceptual visibility contrasts between the two realities: empirical and fictitious, the imperfection of the latter being the building material for the former. In his novels Erewhon (1872) and Erewhon Revisited (1901), the 19th-century writer Samuel Butler undertook an attempt at merging the two worlds into their ambivalent realization, into a single meaningful entity. The genre heterogeneity of the texts, displaying the aspects of the philosophical pamphlet, autobiography, adventure novels, satire, and Utopia was predetermined by the further regrouping of canonical forms at the turn of the century and the eclecticism of Butler's artistic method. The writer, in keeping with the Utopian tradition, confined the exotic Erewhon on a faraway island inside the mountain range. The double physical boundary, as well as the island's location beyond the equator, conduced to concentrating inverse images and concepts in the imaginary country. Distanced from the customary circumstances, the Erewhonians identified disease with crime and sin with sickness, juxtaposed the Church and musical banks and equated machines with human organs. Given such distinctions, the fictional world of Butler's books witnessed the establishment of paradoxical unity between extremes. In framing his ideal, the author showed that the total negation of the empirical reality induced constructing a reality, fundamentally unattainable and, by implication, ethereal. Butler examined a new mode of Utopian world-modelling, based on the ambivalence of the empirical and fictitious worlds, which affected the development of the Utopian genre in the century to come.
The authority of the word in the mentality of both the Old and the New World emanates from recognizing it as the cause of the Universal
157
creation. The author's word is capable of relating the creation of the world, as well as creating a fictional world of its own. The protagonist of Butler's novels underwent a strenuous journey into the land of anagrams and antipodes, whose nature was defined as hypothetical. Hypothetics, in the writer's view, rested on a set of «utterly strange and impossible contingencies», aimed at educating the mind's flair of inconsistency and evasion. Largely, public opinion was generated by the local prophets and philosophers, whose word, condensed in the books, might call to action as an authority. In his turn, the protagonist of Edward Bellamy's novel Looking Backward: 2000-1887 (1888) was transported in his sleep into the future, only slightly reminiscent of 19th-century Boston. The aspects of this fictional world were dubbed prodigious on the grounds that even «humanity's ancient dream of liberty, equality, fraternity at last was realized». Bellamy called the state ideology nationalism, since it presupposed a politico-social development of the country with a view to «a moral sentiment». The author attributed the role of ideological didactics to religion, which meant that the preacher's word had achieved the rank of societal moral authority. Butler's fictional world appeared suggestive of paradoxical potential, intrinsic to the word, its power to lead to results conflicting with intentions. Bellamy, taking up the puritan tradition, sacralized the word, refusing to recognize the hidden antipodes reposing in it. But there is much more in the word and its faculties. Not only does the word as authority attain the capacity of relating the creation or creating a fictional world, but also that of ruining this world and, along with it, the Universal creation.
Chapter III undertakes an analytical excursion into the poetic and semiotic transformations in literary Utopias of the 20th century. The signs of antiutopian ideology can be traced practically on all the stages of the literary process, though the autonomous genre status of antiutopias results from the sociohistorical cataclysms of the previous century. The sad experience of carrying brave Utopian projects into effect gave ample ground for antiutopian reflection and, in the long run, foreshadowed a quantitative decline in Utopian works of literature. Among subgenre varieties of literary antiutopias, mention should be made of quasi-utopias, dystopias, and cacatopias. Whereas quasi-utopias demonstrate possible alternatives of outliving and overcoming the excesses of absurd rationality in state government, dystopias and cacatopias modulate in eschatological tonality, balancing on the edge of politico-social despair and degradation.
Despite the prevalent 20th-century tendency to associate the human and world situation with nightmares, Aldous Huxley dreamt «pragmatically» in his final novel Island (1962). The book opened and concluded on the same note - the mynah birds' call to attention, perceived by the protagonist traveller William Farnaby. In search of oil deposits, he set sail for
158
<<< ΛΛΛ >>>
Шадурский М. Литературная утопия от Мора до Хаксли литературоведения 10 счастья
Эдуард беллами
Шадурский М. Литературная утопия от Мора до Хаксли литературоведения 10 человека
|
|
